4 In American Wood Type three groups of typical plain typefaces, so-called “primary faces” are listed: Roman, Antique (nowadays commonly known as slab serif) and Gothic (sans serif). The industrial production of wood type had its heyday in the mid and late 19th century (before posters began to be printed lithographically), but large amounts were manufactured nevertheless until the 1960s.
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In his extensive book on American Wood Type: 1828–1900, Notes on the Evolution of Decorated and Large Types (New York, 1977) author Rob Roy Kelly (1925–2004) explains: “The condensing and expanding of type designs has been attributed to Americans more than to Europeans, and there is evidence that many of these variations sprang from the wood type producers.” 3 Kelly’s evidence are several early examples of wood typefaces cut in series of six to eight widths.
(With kind permission from the collection of Andrea Tinnes.) The cover of a 1968 Univers specimen issued by the American Type Founders (ATF) reveals Rémy Peignot’s diagram – with slight changes – to serve as a table of content. According to Erik Spiekermann it was Adrian Frutiger who first followed the principle that type design is placed in the “context of planning rather than following an artistic stimulus” in exemplary manner and that it was he who first saw a type family as a closed system in which several weights are combined without “aesthetic compromises.” 2 Many agree that this face designed by Adrian Frutiger and released by Deberny & Peignot in 1957 was the first to appear on the market as a coherent system and it was in fact planned as such at the beginning of the design process. In an article like this one, there is of course no escape from Univers. This can be anything from a series of widths to a typeface with a spectrum of more than two or four weights (regular, bold and respective italics used to be common) to establishing parameters which allow for an interrelated combination of different styles (mixing sans with serif or with slab or any other hybrid version of these). All rights reserved.There are different concepts of such visual systems in type design. These findings differ sharply from the standard result for two-sector models that if the investments allocated to the two sectors are perfect substitutes, then local indeterminacy occurs for a wide range of plausible parameter values.
We show numerically that an elasticity of substitution of plausible size implies determinacy near the steady state. More specifically, we show that a necessary condition for local indeterminacy is an upward-sloping aggregate labor demand curve in the investment sector, which requires a counterfactual strength of the externality. We show analytically that in this case local indeterminacy near the steady state is impossible for every empirically plausible specification of the model parameters. The novelty is that investment allocated to the consumption sector is an imperfect substitute for investment allocated to the investment sector. We study a class of two-sector growth models with sector-specific externalities, in which one sector produces consumption and the other sector produces investment. We conclude by suggesting several directions for future research on structural transformation. We also argue that this multisector model delivers new and sharper insights for understanding economic development, regional income convergence, aggregate productivity trends, hours worked, business cycles, wage inequality, and greenhouse gas emissions. We argue that this multi-sector model serves as a natural benchmark to study structural transformation and that it is able to account for many salient features of structural transformation. We then develop a multi-sector extension of the one-sector growth model that encompasses the main existing theories of structural transformation.
We begin by presenting the stylized facts of structural transformation across time and space. This review article synthesizes and evaluates recent advances in the research on structural transformation. Structural transformation refers to the reallocation of economic activity across the broad sectors agriculture, manufacturing, and services.
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